The
Professional Artistry of Reflective Teaching
Wendy Ratkovec
History, Philosophy & Trends
Dr. Merryellen Towey Schulz
December 13, 2001
Abstract
Growing research in
the area of teacher quality and effectiveness has added to the awareness
of teacher’s professional development through reflection in their daily
practice. A detailed definition of reflective practice and how it,
in turn, fosters professional development is discussed.
The Professional Artistry of Reflective
Teaching
…Two roads diverged in a
wood,
And I—I took the one less
traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
-Robert
Frost (1995)
By putting the context of this quote,
titled “The Road Not Taken,” into today’s society of education, author
Robert Frost (1931) becomes known as what researchers today would label a
“reflective practitioner.” Educators are required to make many
decisions on a daily basis related to “successfully” handling the
challenges associated with the education of young people.
John Dewey (1933), one of the first
advocates of reflective practice in education, states that “thinking
begins in what may fairly enough be called a forked-road situation, a
situation that is ambiguous, that presents a dilemma, that proposes
alternatives” (pg. 14), much like the forked-road in Frost’s poem.
As long as our mind is at-ease and our activity progresses smoothly, there
is no real reason for reflection. “Difficulty or obtrusion in the
way of reaching a belief brings us, however, to a pause” (pg. 14). A
demand for a solution to such an “obtrusion” is “the guiding factor in the
entire process of reflection” (pg. 14). The contents of this
literature review will outline the definition of thoughtful teaching and
reflective practice as characterized by various researchers, the literacy
of reflectiveness, the educational aim to make learning a life-long
process through reflection and change, and techniques for the reflective
practitioner to professionally develop as an educator. Following the
writing of the literature review, a study will be conducted to establish
ways in which present educators reflect on their practice, if or how they
feel it has affected their teaching styles, and areas they feel they need
to strengthen in their professional development.
Exactly what is thoughtful teaching and
which teachers are, in a sense, thoughtful? According to
Christopher Clark (1995) in his book titled Thoughtful Teaching,
“…teaching is an intellectual enterprise” (Intro XV). Teachers are
adventurers in their everyday practice, approaching a forked-road
situation many times throughout the day. Clark continues by stating,
“teachers are representatives of academic disciplines who must work to
understand the knowledge, traditions, and terminology of mathematics,
science, history, language, and continually deal with the intellectual
challenge of representing knowledge usefully and understandably to their
students. Teaching demands a great deal of thought in the classic
forms of study, problem solving, and decision-making” (Intro XV).
Clark’s description of thoughtful teaching, then, includes all teachers.
No matter who is teaching, the content being taught, or the teaching
method being utilized, the teacher is always thinking. “Teaching is
inescapably intellectual” (Intro XV). Reflective thought is related
to thoughtful teaching in that reflection consists of a succession of
thoughts and ideas. However, the difference, Dewey (1933) affirms,
is that “reflection involves not simply a sequence of ideas, but a con-sequence”
(pg. 4). He defines this consequence as “a consecutive ordering in
such a way that each determines the next as its predecessor” (pg. 4).
Reflection is a continuous relationship of ideas; consistent steps of
thoughts all supporting each other. When a teacher reaches a
forked-road, per say, it is then that she must make a decision, knowing
that each decision has its own set of consequences. One future
educator states:
Reflective practice to me is looking at situations that I encounter
retrospectively, looking at things that I did to counteract a situation or
how I behaved in the situation. Primarily, this means looking at
myself and how I responded to a situation and figuring out whether or not
there was a better way I could have handled a situation. “What could
I have done differently?” is the question I ask myself reflecting on what
I did so that if a similar situation were ever to occur again, I would
handle it better. (Norlander, pp. 28-9, 1999)
This future
educator is reflective in a way that helps him to recall similar
situations and help define the consequences that would occur before he
takes action. He can support his decision with examples from his
previous experience.
Most effective educators take pride in being able to justify the reasoning
behind their decisions and actions; they can provide solid, valid reasons
for their reactions. In order to be able to provide such
justification, the teacher cannot rely on either instinct alone or some
“pre-packaged” set of techniques. To provide good reasons or grounds
for the course of action, “…the teacher must think about what is taking
place, what the options are, and so on, in a critical and analytical way.
In other words, the teacher must engage in critical reflection about
his/her practice” (Norlander, pg. 27, 1999).
So in what ways can all educators arise at such a level of comfort in
knowing that whichever road they take (decision they make), they have a
valid reasoning for their reaction? According to the Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (2000), effective educators make
decisions following four steps:
1.
They think carefully about what is taking place in a given
situation.
2.
They identify the options available.
3.
They consider their own values as a professional and their comfort
level in action on them.
4.
They make conscious choices about how to act in order to make a
difference.
When teachers think
about what is taking place, they are analyzing their own teaching style
and their students’ learning as the ultimate goal. They take into
consideration all the available options that could improve their
performance for the students’ benefits and make a decision based on
previous experiences, available options, and their own personal beliefs
and values. To sum it all up, we could simply say that effective
educators are reflective. “Active, persistent, and careful
consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of
the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it
tends, constitutes reflective thought” (Dewey, pg. 9, 1933). In
order to make a valid, intellectual decision, the teacher at the
forked-road unconsciously follows through all four of these steps.
Her decision is based on previous experiences and “further conclusions” or
consequences. She reflects on the past in order to predict the
future outcomes.
Christopher Clark and Penelope Peterson (1995) reviewed approximately
forty studies related to teacher thinking. This research showed that
“teachers do plan in a rich variety of ways, and these plans have real
consequences in the classroom” (pg. 11). “They reflect on and
analyze the apparent effects of their own teaching and apply the results
of these reflections to their future plans and actions. In short,
they have become researchers of their own teaching effectiveness” (Clark
and Peterson, 1986, pp. 292-3).
Reflective practice is hardly a new concept in the field of education.
Dewey’s work in 1933 has been used as grounds for additional research.
Recent emphasis on the need for reflective practice in education has been
largely inspired by and grounded in the work of Donald Schön.
His research has been widely implemented into colleges and universities
interested in the preparation of classroom teachers. Researchers
recommend that teacher education programs combine “John Dewey’s philosophy
on the moral, situational aspects of teaching with Schön’s
process for a more contextual approach” (Ferraro, 2000).
Using Schön’s
work as a base, Joellen P. Killion and Guy R. Todnem (1991) distinguished
among three types of reflection: reflection-in-action,
reflection-on-action, and reflection-for- action” (Norlander, pg. 30,
1999). “Both reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action are
essentially reactive in nature, being distinguished primarily by when
reflection takes place- with reflection-in-action referring to reflection
in the midst of practice, and reflection-on-action referring to reflection
that takes place after an event” (pg. 30). According to Schön
(1987) reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action take place when
“knowing-in-action—the sort of knowledge that professionals come to depend
on to perform their work spontaneously—produces an unexpected outcome or
surprise.” In her article Reflective Practice In Adult Education,
Susan Imel (1992) uses researcher R.B. Kottkamp’s terms “offline” and
“online” to distinguish between reflection-on-action and
reflection-in-action, respectively. “Reflection-on-action takes
place after the activity, when full attention can be given to analysis,
while reflection-in-action interrupts the activity by thinking about how
to reshape the activity while it is underway.”
Let’s examine a little closer how Schön
contrasts reflection-in-action to school knowledge and relates
reflection-in-action to reflection-on-action. In Schön’s
presentation Educating the Reflective Practitioner in the 1987
meeting of the American Educational Research Association in Washington,
D.C., he defines school knowledge as “knowledge that is determinate in the
sense that there are right answers; questions have right answers. The
knowledge is formal and categorical…” Schön
states that it is the teacher’s responsibility to know what the right
answers are and to communicate them to students. In contrast, he
defines reflection-in-action as “tacit and spontaneous and often delivered
without taking thought, and is not a particularly intellectual activity.”
So what exactly does school knowledge have to do with
reflection-in-action? “Knowing-in-action, the more that we know in
what we do by the way in which we do it, and reflection-in-action, the
capacity to respond to surprise through improvisation,” (Schön,
1987) gives the teacher the ability to get in touch with what the students
are actually saying and doing. This ability allows for teacher
knowledge of “the greatest possible number of methods, the ability of
inventing new methods and, above all, not a blind adherence to ONE method,
but the conviction that all methods are one-sided and that the best method
would be the one that would answer best to all the possible difficulties
incurred by the pupil” (Schön,
1987). This is what Schön
refers to as “not a method, but an art and a talent.”
Reflection-in-action does not need to be an intellectual or verbalized
activity. Many times it requires simply thinking about a process,
which may not always be so simple. Schön
shares that in his years of teaching, he found it hardest to teach a
student what he knows how to do best. He had to reflect on
his actions, think about what he does, and observe himself doing it
(1987). This reflection-on-action is intellectual and does
require verbalization. It requires a deep look into the process of
action during a specific situation—a reflection on what worked well in
this process and what needs to be changed. This is
reflection-on-action.
Reflection-for-action, on the other hand, is the desired outcome of both
previous types of reflection. We undertake reflection, not so much
to revisit the past or to become aware of the metacognitive process one is
experiencing, but to guide future action.” Reflection-for-action is
proactive in nature. As teachers plan for a lesson or activity,
reflection-for-action helps minimize issues and problems that would
interrupt the learning. Clearly all three of these interrelated
types of reflection are necessary components of a classroom teacher’s
reflective practice (See Figure 1). Nevertheless, the relative
significance of each of these three components of reflective practice
changes over the course of an individual teacher’s career (Norlander, pg.
31, 1999).
Figure 1:
Three Types of
Reflective Practice (Norlander, pg. 30, 1999)
Reflective practice has had a growing
popularity because of its implications for education and teachers
professional development through learning and change. However,
“reflective thinking even when it is persistent and careful, does not
automatically lead to change and improvement” (Eby, pg. 9, 1997).
Sixty-eight years ago Dewey (1933) recognized this by stating “everyone
knows that a moving object catches and holds the eye more readily than one
at rest. Yet under the name of discipline and good order, school
conditions are often made to approximate as nearly as possible to monotony
and uniformity” (pg. 51). He was referring to the arrangement of the
classroom and the uniformity of the students. “In schools where the
chief aim is to establish mechanical habit and instill uniformity of
conduct, the conditions that stimulate wonder and keep it energetic and
vital are necessarily ruled out” (pg. 51).
Reflective practice, when effectively applied and utilized, can help
educators see areas in need of change and problem solve the best ways to
make the change. Reflection-in-action, reflection-on-action, and
reflection-for-action all apply. No matter when the teacher realizes
that change is needed, through the reflection process, she makes that
change occur. Schön
suggests that “reflectivity in teaching leads to professional
artistry” (Eby, pg. 9, 1997). Teachers begin to develop their
own capacity for reflection by “systematically reviewing important
teaching and learning events to recapture emotions felt by the teacher and
the students and to compare the accomplishments made during other types of
learning experiences” (Eby, pg. 14, 1997). These emotions help the
teacher identify their role in changing or adapting their style.
The teacher’s role in learning and change is an important, yet difficult
one. Nancy Kraft, Ph.D. (2000), has identified several goals of
professional development through reflection. Two that relate to
learning and change include: 1.) “to develop the skills necessary to
access classroom practices systematically and critically especially with
regard to how these affect student learning; and 2.) to critique beliefs,
values, and assumptions that shape one’s practice. An important
aspect of these goals is that the teachers view themselves first and
foremost as learners and the school as a learning environment.
Research conducted by cognitive psychologists has suggested, “the
schemata, organized networks of facts, concepts, generalizations, and
experiences, of beginning and experienced teachers are different
insignificant ways” (Norlander, pg. 34, 1999). Teachers construct
schemata for organizing knowledge over time as a result of their
experiences, so it is not surprising that experienced teachers are often
able to make sense of and respond to a problematic situation in the
classroom more quickly and effectively than novice teachers can.
Schemata of the sort discussed here “are constructed naturally over time,
of course, but their development can be encouraged and supported by
reflective practice” (pg. 35).
Reflection is a process of learning and change. It can be a “time to
rest and a time to recoup—to rethink one’s priorities, one’s joys and
satisfactions, one’s dissatisfactions—to create balance in one’s
existence, not only assessment of the present but also expectations for
the future” (Henderson, 2001). In reflecting, we think about and
affirm our practices, raise questions, pose problems and possible
solutions about discipline, curriculum, teaching/learning strategies,
ethical and personal values, and philosophical issues. However,
learning and change are not always easy processes to endure. Schön
(1987) believes that the only way we learn and grow is to have the kinds
of experiences from which we are all able to make sense of what is being
said. But this “is full of loss because you feel vulnerable; you
feel you don’t know what you’re doing; you feel out of control; you feel
incompetent; you feel you’ve lost confidence.” No one wants to
experience these feelings; no one wants to swim around looking for
answers. What makes reflection so difficult is that it is
“contingent, dynamic, ever-changing…(van Manen, 1994). Dewey stated
in 1933 that this is the only type of thinking that provokes reflection
and then learning, change, and growth. “Demand for the solution of a
perplexity is the steadying and guiding factor in the entire process of
reflection.” Dewey called this a state of “mental unrest and
disturbance” (Norlander, pg. 26, 1999). It is the emotional aspects
we remember and that aid in organizing the situations and solutions into
our schemata. Dewey acknowledged this significant aspect by specifying,
“attitudes of open-mindedness, respect, and whole heartedness are needed
for teachers to translate their thoughts into reflective actions” (Eby,
pg. 9, 1997). Such strong emotional feelings help us identify our
moral and ethical identity. Robert P. Yagelski (1999), assistant
professor of English at the State University of New York, comments on the
importance of teachers acknowledging themselves as learners and
professionals of change through this quote from Bill Hooks:
I don’t think the professor’s place in the classroom can remain the same,
because there are so many areas in which we have gaps in our knowing.
And where is the place in our pedagogical practice to admit, “I can’t
really be the primary teacher at this moment because I don’t know enough
(pg. 46).
“By acknowledging
this uncertainty, we genuinely open ourselves up to the possibility that
we are learners too, and that good teaching is really about good learning”
(Yagelski, pg. 46, 1999).
In order for learning to take place, teachers must be able to identify
areas that need change, reflect and problem-solve ways to adjust, and
implement the modifications. George J. Posner, author of Methods
of Reflective Teaching (1989), states “our own beliefs, principles,
and ideas (termed perspectives), function for each of us as a personal
“platform”… to justify and unify our decisions and actions. A
personal platform is what we stand for and what we stand on” (pg. 63).
If this perspective is the foundation of all that teachers “stand for and
stand on,” it is vital to have a strong platform to ensure the ability to
provide solid and valid reasoning for decisions. Posner (1989) also
believes that this perspective is a “lens through which we look at the
world of teaching” (pg. 63).
Where do these perspectives come from and why are they essential for a
teacher’s professional development? Stephen D. Brookfield (1995), a
distinguished university professor who has written widely on the topic of
critical thinking and teaching states, “we have available four lenses
through which we view our teaching” (pg. 29). These lenses are our
autobiographies as teachers and learners, our student’s eyes, our
colleagues’ experiences, and theoretical literature. Viewing the
self through these lenses help teachers gain a wider perspective of their
teaching practices.
Viewing autobiographies as both a teacher and learner has important
implications for how educators deliver information. Brookfield
(1995) relates to the emotional aspects of learning. “In the face of
crises or ambiguities, we fall back instinctively on memories from our
times as learners to guide us in our responses” (pg. 31). Personal
experiences are what help teachers recognize the parts of their practice
they feel strongly committed to and gravitate toward.
As learn occurs as a result of reflecting on personal experiences,
teachers are able to relate more to their students. Many times,
Brookfield (1995) explains, “we are surprised by the diversity of meanings
students read into our words” (pg. 34). As teachers see their
actions and practice through their students’ eyes, they are able to teach
more responsively to the needs of their students. “Everything the
teacher does, as well as the manner in which he does it, incites the child
to respond in some way or other, and each response tends to set the
child’s attitude in some way or other” (Dewey, pg. 59, 1933). And we
are well aware that these con-sequences are effects of our actions.
A view from our students’ eyes can help us anticipate what these
consequences may be.
Like students, colleagues serve as “critical mirrors reflecting back to us
images of our actions” (Brookfield, pg. 35, 1995). Teachers
recognize aspects of their own individual experiences in the stories
colleagues tell. Brookfield (1995) identifies the importance of peer
groups as ways of seeking new perspectives of a problem or “stumbling
across an interpretation that fits what is happening in a particular
situation” (pg. 36). A colleague’s experience may suggest dynamics
and causes that make much more sense than the explanation we have evolved.
“If this happens, we are helped enormously in our effort to work out just
what we should be doing to deal with the problem” (Brookfield, pg. 36,
1995).
Many times teachers interpret these problems as reflections of their own
personality. However, Brookfield (1995) suggests, “studying theory
can help us realize that what we thought were signs of our personal
failings as teachers can actually be interpreted as inevitable
consequences of certain economic, social, and political processes” (pg.
36). This practice of reviewing theoretical literature can identify
that we are not responsible for everything that happens in our classroom.
Action research is an example of theoretical literature. “Action
research involves looking at one’s own practice, or a situation involving
children’s development, behaviors, social interactions, learning
difficulties, family involvement, or learning environments, and then
reflecting and seeking support and feedback from colleagues” (Borgia &
Schuler, 1996). In this practice, teachers look through all lenses
of reflection. They identify their own practices (autobiographies),
as well as a deeper understanding of children and their teaching and
learning processes (students’ eyes), collaborate with colleagues, and
review theory. Borgia (1996) states, “good action research
integrates theory, practice, and meaningful concurrent applications of
results.” Therefore, it is a continuous changing, learning, and
growing process of the teacher. “To learn is to change; to change is
to create; and to create is to learn” (Garner, 1996).
By viewing our teaching practice and philosophy through these four lenses,
we are able to challenge ourselves to reflect on each aspect. This
creates the kind of change that supports professional growth and
development. “By becoming aware of the perspective by which we
operate, we can at least become sensitive to the bases for our own
approach to teaching and, at best, become capable of changing our approach
as we gain both new ideas and new teaching experiences” (Posner, pg. 73,
1989). Dewey (1933) suggests this equation, emphasizing that we do
not actually learn from experience as much as we learn from reflecting on
the experience:
Experience + Reflection = Growth
(Posner, 1989)
Teaching is a profession; “it is a demanding profession in that it
requires the reflective exercise of knowing and skill, while being
intensely engaged in the complex, perhaps greatly disadvantaged lives of
one’s students” (Norlander, pg. 7, 1999). Norlander (1999) suggests
that as a professional develops, a commitment to learning more about the
persistent problems or unknown forms a mind of inquiry. This inquiry
comes from awareness in the needs of the community and reflecting on these
needs in search for solutions. Teachers recognize the value of their
professional “service” in educating children to be life-long learners.
Through continuing education, teachers increase their knowledge and skills
in teaching and learning throughout their careers. They reflect upon
the decisions they make and take responsibility for the consequences of
their actions” (Eby, pg. 9, 1997). A vital aspect of professional
growth and development is change. Without change, there is no
growth. It does not have to be a tremendous change, such as an entirely
new curriculum. Reflecting on the needs of the students and
changing a teaching style to meet the needs of many learning styles is
growth. “Professional development should allow educators to learn to
function together productively and effectively as a team to engage
in collaborative decision making” (Kraft, 2001). Teachers need
encouragement to be instruments of change.
Change is the ultimate goal of professional development. I would
adapt Posner’s equation to read:
Experience + Reflection + Change
= Growth
Ratkovec, 2001
Dewey (1933) stated
that “the function of reflection is to transform a situation in
which there is experienced obscurity, doubt, conflict, disturbance, of
some sort, into a situation that is clear, coherent, settled, harmonious”
(pg. 11). In the end of the process of critical reflection we will
probably be left with unanswered questions in need of further examination.
“But for an educator, this is as it should be, particularly if we
genuinely believe that education is a life-long process” (Glatthorn & Fox,
pg. 42, 1996).
Ways that teachers can grow in their professional development through
reflection are numerous. “Teacher research is very important because
it maintains a dynamism of trying to find new and better ways of teaching
and communicating” (Norlander, pg. 40, 1999). Theoretical research
has already been discussed, as well as the other three lenses that help
teachers develop their perspectives. Keeping a reflective journal is
also a practice to foster professional development and growth.
“Keeping a record of what you do, reflecting on what you do, and thinking
reflectively about what you might do better is an important part of
professional growth, especially in teaching” (Norlander, pg. 36, 1999).
Kathleen Devaney and Gary Sykes believe that “professionalism is a form of
liberty that is not simply conferred; it is earned” (Norlander, pg. 36,
1999). To earn the “liberty” of being called professionals,
educators must not only adhere to standards; they must also acknowledge
and change according to the needs of their students.
Members of a true teaching profession must
have knowledge and technical competence; share values about their
profession and its consequent responsibilities; carry out inquiry and
reflection as a matter of course; recognize, celebrate and take into
account diversity in the provision of equitable educational opportunities
to all children; and have an altruism toward their profession that will
enable it to grow and prosper (Norlander, pg. 1, 1999).
Teachers who share
in this professional growth are open-minded thinkers who believe in the
importance of their learning. They take part in their own learning
and growth by accepting change, reflecting on their values, teaching, and
learning styles, and taking into consideration their students as a focus
of their professional growth.
Reflection, in the end, amounts to a better understanding of self and
profession. Research has identified it as a key component in
effective teaching. It may be a time-consuming process; and “it may
involve personal risk because the questioning of practice requires
practitioners to be open to an examination of beliefs, values, and
feelings about which there may be great sensitivity” (Imel, 1992).
Reflective practice requires both knowledge of practice and an awareness
of professional and personal philosophy. However, it is a reassuring
practice; it reassures the reasoning of teachers’ decisions at a
forked-road. It reassures the process of learning, change, and growth.
And most importantly, it focuses on the students’ needs and their
development as learners as well as the teacher’s learning process.
“You can be a good teacher because you know how to teach. You
may be a good teacher because you know your subject. Both are
very important. But you must follow it up” (Frank 1999).
This follow-up is the reflective process through which the teacher grows
professionally and turns her students into life-long learners as well.
Learning is but a journey and the teacher
is the guide. Determine down which path you will lead your students.
Set your path with a clear and strong vision. Then enjoy the
adventure and excitement of learning throughout the school year (Frank,
1999).
Works Cited
Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development. (2000). [Online]. Available:
http://webserver2.ascd.org/pd_demo/lesson.cfm?lnum=1&SID=14
Borgia, Eileen T. & Schuler, Dorothy.
(1996). Action Research in Early Childhood Education. Eric
Clearinghouse. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed401047.html.
Brookfield, Stephen D. (1995).
Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Inc.
Clark, Christopher. (1995).
Thoughtful Teaching. New York: Teachers College Press.
Dewey, John. (1933). How We
Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the
Educative Process. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co.
Eby, Judy W. (1997).
Reflective Planning, Teaching, & Evaluation for the Elementary School.
New Jersey: Merrill.
Ferraro, Joan M. (2000).
Reflective Practice & Professional Development. Eric
Clearinghouse. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed449120.html
Frank, Peter. (1999). Mission
Possible: Becoming a Reflective Teacher. Catalyst, 8.
[Online]. Available:
http://webserver2.ascd.org/pd_html/re1read1.html.
Frost, Robert. (1995). A
Collection of Poems, Prose, & Plays. New York: Library of
America.
Garner, Betty. (1996). Using
Action Research: Challenges & Opportunities for the Beginner.
Paper presented at the Greater St. Louis Sixth Action Research
Collaborative Conference, St. Louis, MO.
Glatthorn, Allan A. & Fox, Linda E.
(1996). Quality Teaching Through Professional Development.
California: Corwin Press, Inc.
Grant, Carl A. (1984).
Preparing for Reflective Teaching. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, Inc.
Henderson, Norma. (2001). Role
of Reflection in the Renewal of Teaching. [Online]. Available:
http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/tlr/reflect.html
Imel, Susan. (1992).
Reflective Practice in Adult Education. Eric Clearinghouse,
122. [Online serial]. Available:
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed346319.html
Kraft, Nancy P., Ph.D. (2000).
Components for Effective Professional Development. [Online].
Available:
http://www.starcenter.org/documents/components.htm.
Posner, George J. (1989).
Field Experience: Methods of Reflective Teaching, 2nd
Ed. New York: Longman
Pospisil, R. & Wilcoxson, L, Eds.
(1997). Learning Through Teaching: Proceedings of the 6th
Annual Teaching Learning Forum. Murdoch University, February 1997).
Perth: Murdoch University. [Online]. Available: http://cleo.murdoch.edu.au/asu/pubs/tlf/tlf97/hall124.html.
Norlander-Case, Kay A., Reagan, Timothy G.
& Case, Charles W. (1999). The Professional Teacher.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Osterman, Karen F. & Kottkamp, Robert B.
(1993). Reflective Practice for Educators: Improving Schooling
Through Professional Development. California: Corwin Press, Inc.
Schön,
Donald. (1988). Educating the Reflective Practitioner.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schön,
Donald. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner.
Paper presented at the 1987 meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, Washington, D.C.
Van Manen, Max. (1994). On the
Epistemology of Reflective Practice. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ualberta.ca/~vanmanen/epistpractice.htm.
Yagelski, Robert P. (1999). The
Ambivalence of Reflection: Critical Pedagogies, Identity, and the Writing
Teacher. College Composition and Communication, 51, 32-50.
